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2006;118(4):773–86 Holgate ST, Polosa R. The mechanisms, diagnosis, and management of severe asthma in adults. Thorax. 1998;12:1084–8.Hojo M, Kudo K. Dose–response relationship for inhaled corticosteroids and the add-on effect of long-acting βPedersen S, O’Byrne P. A comparison of the efficacy and safety of inhaled corticosteroids in asthma. Exogenous glucocorticoids in Paediatric asthma. Dependency of cortisol suppression on the administration time of inhaled corticosteroids [published correction appears in J Clin Pharmacol.
J Allergy Clin Immunol. Budesonide delivered by Turbuhaler is effective in a dose-dependent fashion when used in the treatment of adult patients with chronic asthma. 08-4051. 1995;12:L41–6.Baraniuk JN, Ali M, Brody D, et al. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(8 Pt 1):1392–7.O’Byrne PM, Bisgaard H, Godard PP, et al. J Pharm Sci. Can J Ophthalmol. Johansson AK, Sergejeva S, Sjostrand M, Lee JJ, Lotvall J. Allergen-induced traffic of bone marrow eosinophils, neutrophils and lymphocytes to airways. 2013;68:1029–36.Eurich DT, Lee C, Marrie TJ, Majumdar SR. Mori K, Fujisawa T, Inui N, et al. Allergy. Allergy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;7:255–66.Jatakanon A, Lim S, Kharitonov SA, Chung KF, Barnes PJ. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. & D’Urzo, A. Clinicians are encouraged to pursue a clinical management strategy that focuses on achieving current control and reducing future risk using the lowest effective dose of controller therapy, recognizing that all ICS have similar efficacy in the clinical setting. 2016;105:2509–14.Szefler SJ, Martin RJ, King TS, et al. 2000;343:1054–63.Silverstein MD, Yunginger JW, Reed CE, et al.
J Allergy Clin Immunol. The effect of asthma on growth pattern and courses of oral corticosteroids make it difficult to isolate the effects of ICS use on growth [A recent meta-analysis of 16 RCT showed that ICS use for >12 months in children significantly reduced growth velocity at 1-year follow-up [The effects of oral corticosteroids on osteoporosis and the risk of fracture are well established. Impact of inhaled corticosteroids on growth in children with asthma: systematic review and meta-analysis. 2008;53(6):751–67.Ernst P, Spitzer WO, Suissa S, et al. 1997;41:44–50.Kannisto S, Korppi M, Remes K, Voutilainen R. Adrenal suppression, evaluated by a low dose adrenocorticotropin test, and growth in asthmatic children treated with inhaled steroids. Potential adverse effects of the inhaled corticosteroids. Rescue use of beclomethasone and albuterol in a single inhaler for mild asthma. Drugs. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;159(4 Pt 1):1179–85.Ip M, Lam K, Yam L, Kung A, Ng M. Decreased bone mineral density in premenopausal asthma patients receiving long-term inhaled steroids. Exogenous glucocorticoids in paediatric asthma. 2000;85:652–7.Barnes NC, Hallett C, Harris TA. Eur Respir J. Plasma protein binding of inhaled corticosteroids: reappraisal of its significance in systemic pharmacological activity. Respir Care.
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The long-term effect of ICS on the risk of fracture still needs to be elucidated. 1999;80:241–7.Jeal W, Faulds D. Triamcinolone acetonide. These advantageous properties reduce the occurrence of local and systemic side effects. 2015;80(3):372–80.Kelly HW. 2015;16:45–56.US Food and Drug Administration.
Respir Med. Lancet. 2001;163:A518.Crim C, Pierre LN, Daley-Yates PT. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Bone mineral density in subjects with mild asthma randomized to treatment inhaled corticosteroids or non-corticosteroid treatment for two years. Respir Care. 2006;129:15–26.Bateman ED, Boushey HA, Bousquet J, Busse WW, Clark TJH, et al. Budesonide/formoterol in a single inhaler for maintenance and relief in mild-to-moderate asthma: a randomized, double-blind trial. Clinical and pathologic perspectives on aspirin sensitivity and asthma. The CAMP Research Group studied the development of posterior subcapsular cataracts in 311 children treated long term with budesonide; only one child developed cataract by the end of the 6-year study period [Skin bruising and thinning have been documented as side effects of ICS use [The potent anti-inflammatory properties of ICS make them the ideal first choice for controller therapy in asthmatic patients with persistent symptoms.
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